Category Archives: Ancient Crete

Linear A and B

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I am fascinated by words and language. I’m not sure if that is because I’m a big reader or I became a reader and eventually an author because of it.

In any event, when I began researching the Minoans for my latest series, (In the shadow of the Bull and On the Horns of Death),

I quickly ran into the question of these old, probably the oldest, written languages. Unlike the hieroglyphics, which were finally deciphered thanks to the Rosetta Stone, Linear A and B resisted decoding.

Linear A, which was used by the Minoans, still has not been deciphered. And Linear B was not deciphered until the 1950s. An Englishman from Hertfordshire, Michael Ventris, finally succeeded, using a multi-disciplinary approach.

Tablets with this writing have been found in Knossos and Pylos, as well as other places, and was very early on recognized as the earliest form of Greek. Deciphering changed the way we understand the Aegean Bronze Age, especially the complex societal structures and the far flung trade networks. Linear B has been determined to be a very early form of Greek

I suspect when Linear A is deciphered, it will include primarily trade information but we can hope it will open a window into this exotic and still mysterious culture.

Games and gambling

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Gambling is one of humanity’s oldest vices. ‘Knucklebones’, an ancient term for dice (since they were made of bones), was used right up to modern times. We know that the ancient Greeks gambled with knucklebones since Homer mentions it in the Odyssey.

One of the games I’ve read about is Aphrodite’s throw which involved throwing four of these dice at the same time. It is thought that the sides of each die had a different number, like contemporary dice do. The rules have been lost in time although there are plenty of guesses.

Contemporary sources from both Ancient Greece and Rome mention gambling on the throw of a die.

Carved wooden boards for games have also been found. We know the Egyptians had games, some of them involving boards, (Hounds and Jackals) so it would not be surprising to find the Bronze Age Cretans did as well.

I must also mention that knucklebones were used for divination, again right up to modern times. ‘Casting the bones’ meant throwing them and then trying to read the future from their positions.

Ancient medicine

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We know the Ancient Greeks had medicine. Examples of the diseases that afflict us now, such as cancer and TB, and diseases we have managed to conquer such as smallpox, are found in their writings.

What do we know of medicine in Bronze Age Crete? Not very much. We know they used herbal remedies. An examination of Egyptian dynasties contemporary with Crete suggest other possible medical treatments. Papyri and scenes inscribed on walls depict medical instruments. The purpose of some of them, however, are still a mystery. Instruments from later dynasties have been found as well.

Papyri, and clay tablets from Mesopotamia, show that a huge feature in medicine was divine intervention. Prayer and animal sacrifice, which we know were also employed in Bronze Age Crete, were important features. Amulets, to keep demons and bad outcomes at bay, were commonly used. Astral medicine, i.e. using the stars to predict the best time for the best outcomes, was also very important. The zodiacal calendar was used to predict the most propitious times for medical treatments.

I want to add that seers were used to predict the best times for all important activities. The flights of birds was one method. The sacrifice of a sheep and the reading of the organs was another.

Our current medical system certainly has flaws. I am very glad, though, that a surgery appointment does not depend on how a flock of birds fly through the sky!

Curetes (Kouretes)

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One of the challenges of writing historical fiction, especially historical fiction that takes place as long ago as Bronze Age Crete, is the difficulty of sorting through the various myths – and the various iterations of the myths. I’ve already discussed the conflation of Zeus and Dionysus in that they share an origin story. When the tribes of mainland Greece swept over Crete after the Santorini volcanic eruption, they adopted much of the Cretan culture. Then they adapted what they’d taken to suit themselves.

Since we are familiar with the Classical Greek myths, so familiar in some case we have internalized them, we think of them as the ‘correct’ stories. Dionysus’s origin story, which became Zeus’s, is one such.

The outlines of Zeus’s story are this. Since it was predicted that one of Cronus’ children would kill him and take his position, he swallowed all of his children as soon as they were born. To protect Zeus, his mother Rhea wrapped a stone in a swaddling cloth (which Cronus swallowed) and the baby was hidden in a cave in Mt. Ida.

In the Cretan myth, it is Dionysus that is hidden in the cave. Each was described as suckled by either a nanny goat or a sow. To hide the baby’s cries, Kouretes made noise.

Who are the Kouretes? If you google the name, they are described as crested, armored warriors who clash their shields together so Cronus can’t hear the baby crying.

But this is not the whole story. According to an earlier myth, the Curetes were the first inhabitants of the Greek island of Crete. They were mythical creatures, specifically legendary benign deities who lived prior to the Minoans. According to an early Greek myth, the Kouretes were not born. They sprang out of the earth of Crete when the infant Zeus wept and his tears fell on the ground.

In this version, they made a hanging cradle for Zeus so he was not of the Earth, the sky, or the sea. He was therefore well protected from Cronus.

Because these are myths, and all things are possible, the Kouretes are supposed to have invented hunting, the first bow, dance, and even the Olympic Games.

The Minoans and Human Sacrifice

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For a long time, the image of Bronze Age Crete was of a pastoral and peaceful society. Since theories about the culture were developed from excavations, as well as the archaeologists’ own opinions, the truth about the details of this civilization has been difficult to ascertain.

Several years ago, an excavation revealed what appeared to be the sacrifice of a young man. His body was placed on a platform and an older man, theorized to be a priest, stood next to it with a bowl in one hand and a knife in the other. The remains of a woman were found a few steps behind the priest.

Since they were killed during an earthquake, when the building in which they stood fell down around them, it is thought the human sacrifice was designed to stop the earthquake and/or propitiate the God sending the earthquake.

Human sacrifice was not uncommon in the past. It was a serious event, designed to placate a God and prevent terrible occurrences such as famine, disease, and yes, earthquakes. A human life was the most valuable gift that could be given.

The Aztecs worshipped a violent God and sacrificed hundreds, possibly thousands, of captives to him. Joseph Campbell discusses the practice in Europe of ritually sacrificing the king so that his life could nourish the soil. Recently, more evidence of human sacrifice on Crete from the Mycenaean period (approx 1280 B.C.E.) came to light in Chania, Crete (old name Kydonia.)

Dr. Vlazaki disclosed the information during a lecture titled “Chania during Minoan Times”. Bones of many animals, ibexes, young pigs, sheep, goats and cattle were discovered. Among them was found a young girl’s skull, broken into fragments exactly like the animal skulls. Dr. Vlazaki indicated that the find should not be considered strange since Greek mythology describes many examples of sacrifices of virgins during periods of great disasters.

Since this latest find was dated to the Mycenaean period, after the Minoans, it seems that human sacrifice was being practiced hundreds of years after the Minoan culture had been conquered by the Mycenaeans. Put together with the previously discovered example of human sacrifice, the case for this practice by the Bronze Age Cretans seems strong.

Weather in Crete

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Since Crete is near the equator, it stands to reason that it is a hot country. That is partially true. During the summers, the weather is hot and dry. Winters, with temperatures in the fifties, are rainy. That is when the olive groves and the vineyards are watered. (Excavations have shown that the Ancient peoples did practice irrigation in the hot dry summers.)

Horns of consecration on a summer day.

Their clothing, loincloths for the men and short-sleeved jackets for the women, also suggest hot weather. (I often think those tiered skirts, probably made from wool, are very heavy and hot.)

Does that mean the Bronze Age culture never saw snow? No. Crete is a mountainous country. Two mountains, Jutkas and Ida, are even now pictured with snow.

Most of the population lived in the lowlands, (although not all) but the snow capped mountains were visible from communities on the plains.

What did people do all day in Bronze Age Crete?

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Women, as expected, took care of children. And they were famous as spinners, weavers and dyers, as the previous posts demonstrate.

But what did the men do?

Well, farming was certainly a profession. Even many of the people who lived in Knossos owned farms. Besides goats and sheep and cattle, the farms grew grains and vegetables as well as the very important olives and grapes.

There were other professions, such as gold smith, jewelry maker, mosaic maker, but the primary job for men involved the sea. Minoan Crete had the best navy in the ancient world at this time. It was so superior that an Egyptian Pharaoh (one of the Ramses) sent a request to Crete for help pushing back the Sea Peoples. These people were sailing from Anatolia and attacking the rich cities of Egypt.

Besides the Navy, the men roamed far and wide, exploring the Mediterranean Sea and trading. (This was certainly a factor in the importance of women. The wives provided the woven goods for trade. As well, the women left behind ran the businesses while their husbands and other male family members were gone.)

Minoan fishing boat

Finally, fishing was an important part of this culture. The people who lived on the island ate from the sea. The mosaics show octopi, dolphins, and a variety of sea creatures. Fish bones, sheep bones and beef bones have been found during archaeological excavations.

Men’s clothing in Ancient Crete

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I’ve written quite a bit about women’s clothing, which was both colorful and elaborate. Male clothing was much simpler.

The above is a fresco at the Knossos palace site. The man pictured is wearing a loincloth decorated with colored bands.

One of the sources I read claimed that the important men wore one robes, similar to the robes worn by Egyptian men. I haven’t seen pictures of such clothing so I am not sure about the accuracy of this statement.

The robes were described as decorated with colored bands, similar to those on the loincloths.

Loincloths and kilts were common wear then. Trousers would not be invented for many centuries.

The hairstyle, with the three locks over the shoulders and the hair decorations were popular for both men and women.

Why was women’s clothing so elaborate and men’s clothing so comparatively simple? I’m speculating here but I wonder if that wasn’t because the women were the spinners, weavers, and dyers. They did the work so they spent more effort on their own attire.

The bull in bull dancing

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In my Ancient Crete series, I describe a sport in which young people run at a bull, grab the horns, and flip over the back. Martis, my protagonist, wants to become a bull leaper in the first book – In the Shadow of the Bull.

In the second in the series, On the Horns of Death, Martis is a full fledged bull leaper.

Below is my imagined picture of what bull leaping might look like.

The bulls used in this sport/ritual were not the domesticated cattle we are now familiar with. Instead, a type of cattle now extinct called aurochs are thought to be ones used.

The aurochs were holdovers from the Ice Age and were much larger than domesticated bulls. From historical reports and excavated skeletons, we know the auroch bulls stood about six feet. They had long slender legs for walking long distances. For the purpose of bull leaping, they had long, thick curved horns.

What happened to the aurochs? We know they were still in existence during the Roman era; they were used as battle beasts in the arenas. The aurochs actually survived until the 1600s, but the numbers were much diminished. Over hunting and loss of range as humans expanded into their habitat. The date given for their extinction is 1627 when a poacher killed the last one on a reserve in Poland.

An effort to rewild Europe has attempted to bring back the Aurochs, among other extinct animals. DNA strands from some ancient cattle strains were combined. The result is called Heck’s cattle and gradually they have been introduced into Europe. Spain just announced a reintroduction in October, 2023.

Atlantis – and Minoan Crete

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I would guess just about everyone has heard of Atlantis. Plato was the first to write about this great naval empire that fell out of favor with the deities and was destroyed. (Plato was writing about hubris and criticizing Crete for opposing Plato’s native Athens.) Since Plato’s time, Atlantis has been used as a springboard for all kinds of fantastic suggestions.

Did you know that there may be a connection between Atlantis and Minoan Crete?

During the Bronze Age, Crete was THE Naval power, to the point that Ramses II in Egypt asked for help fighting the pirates attacking his country. Plato gives dimensions for Atlantis which are a factor of 10 for Crete. Plato also describes a highly sophisticated society – probably the first to have hot and cold running water and indoor toilets. He talks about a palace and a shrine to Poseidon. We know Poteidon was worshipped as a God in Crete and also that bulls, sacred to this God, were worshipped with many rituals including bull leaping.

One of the issues with this theory is the location of Atlantis, supposedly placed beyond the pillars of Hercules in the Atlantic Ocean. Some ancient historians have theorized that, before the sixth century BC, the “Pillars of Hercules” may have applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, that opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in the Mediterranean, lending credence to many details in Plato’s discussion.

For me, the most compelling argument for believing Minoan Crete was the seed of the Atlantis myth is the destruction. In Plato’s telling, earthquakes and floods swept over Atlantis and the island sank into the sea. Crete did not sink. But the volcano at Santorini/Thera erupted in approximately 1450 B.C.E., ripping out the center of the island and leaving an enormous caldera. Crete was nearby and would have been affected by earthquakes, tsunamis and ash. A nearby city, Akrotiri, was completely covered and is being excavated from the hardened ash now. The ash reached Turkey. This volcano, by the way, is still active and has built up an island of hardened lava. An island, by the way, you can travel to and walk on. Vulcanologists expect it to erupt again someday.

The explosion did not destroy Crete. Evidence of rebuilding has been found in and around Knossos. However, it severely weakened the Minoans and evidence of the Mycenaeans show up in the archaeological record right about then. Many believe that the Mycenaeans took the opportunity to conquer a rich and powerful, but severely damaged, neighbor.